MONDAY, NOVEMBER 4, 2024. BY STAN GRANT, VITICULTURIST.
A noncash companion crop in the tractor rows of a vineyard benefits environments both above and below ground. These so-called cover crops are nearly always helpful for improving or maintaining soil conditions for grapevine roots and other soil inhabitants. Simultaneously, cover crops occupy a niche that weeds would otherwise inhabit, thereby suppressing them. For these reasons and others, cover crops have become fundamental to modern winegrowing.
Even so, the selection of a specific cover crop for a vineyard can be intimidating. Among the common groups of cover crop plants – grasses, small grains, and legumes – there are many options. Moreover, the inclusion of other types of plants, such as mustard and radish, is sometimes desirable to achieve certain cover crop effects. Differences in the growth and development among plants, along with the varying objectives for cover crops, require different management approaches. Understandably, given these factors, forming a cover crop plan is a complex affair. In this article we will attempt to simplify matters.
What are the Primary Vineyard Management Priorities for the Cover Crop?
Although there is overlap, the beneficial effects of cover crops generally fall into two broad categories. The first category includes effects on soil condition and resources, and the second category includes effects on the greater vineyard environment. Usually, one of the two benefit groups is more important than the other for managing a particular vineyard. As such, narrowing the field of cover crop possibilities begins with focusing on one of them. These two benefit groups are further described below.
The soil condition and resource benefits a cover crop can provide include improvements in soil tilth and fertility (Figure 1). These benefits are primarily the results of the activities of soil microbes, for which cover crop residues provide needed carbon and mineral nutrients, and humus is among their products.
Figure 1. In this vineyard, the benefits of long-term annual cover cropping are evident as surface soil aggregation. Source: Progressive Viticulture, LLC ©
Should a cover crop be rich in plants from the legume family, it can also supply extra nitrogen to a vineyard soil. This is so because legumes house certain bacteria (Rhizobia) in nodules on their roots that fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, which they share with their host plants. Nitrogen additions to vineyard soils from leguminous cover crops can promote growth invigoration of nearby vines.
Standing cover crops enhance the vineyard environment mainly by protecting and stabilizing surface soils in tractor rows. Their foliage deflects wind and falling rain drops, while their stem bases disrupt and slow water runoff (Figure 2). Additionally, cover crop roots bind soil particles together, facilitating water movement into soils, inhibiting sheet erosion with runoff water, suppressing dust after the soil surface dries and hastening vineyard reentry after a rain. Cover crop roots also impart some degree of resistance to soil compaction under vineyard traffic.
Figure 2. A tall, blended cover crop that includes white mustard and triticale deflects winds and limits wind damage to head trained Zinfandel vines near the Carquinez Straights of California, an area subject to high winds during spring. Source: Progressive Viticulture, LLC ©
Early in the growing season, a robust cover crop can compete with grapevines for soil resources and by that means, devigorate grapevine growth. Cover crop-induced devigoration is especially noticeable where soil water and nitrogen are in short supply.
Till or No Till?
To fully realize vineyard environmental benefits, leave cover crops undisturbed and standing, or mow them and deposit clippings on the soil surface. In contrast, to fully realize soil condition and resource benefits, shred and incorporate cover crops into the vineyard topsoil through tillage. (See lodigrowers.com/till-or-no-till/.) This will expose the bulk of the cover crop biomass to soil microbes, thereby maximizing the potential for decomposition and humus formation (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Disking succulent cover crop tissues into vineyard soils exposes them to soil microorganisms, promoting decomposition and humus production. Source: Progressive Viticulture, LLC ©
The effects of incorporated cover crop tissues are similar to those of incorporated organic soil amendments, such as manure or compost. For this reason, some refer to tilled cover crops as “green manures”. Incorporation of green manure cover crops commonly occurs immediately before or early in the growing season to take advantage of soil moisture from winter rains, which is essential for microbial activities including cover crop residue decomposition. Additionally, this incorporation timing minimizes competition between the cover crop and grapevines for soil resources and reduces the risk of frost damage to the vines. A microbial stimulant or inoculant may be applied immediately before cover crop incorporation to aid decomposition and humus formation.
For the cover crop selection process, the tillage requirement for soil condition and resource benefits narrows plant choices to winter annual plants. These plants have a life cycle compatible with tillage timing, emerging in the autumn and maturing during late winter or spring (Figure 4). In addition, the seeds of winter annual plants, which will be relatively short lived in tilled vineyards, are comparatively inexpensive.
Figure 4. An emerging grass cover crop in a Pinot noir vineyard in the Sacramento River Delta. Source: Progressive Viticulture, LLC ©
Non-tillage, on the other hand, creates an opportunity for cover crops composed entirely or in part with perennial plant species. With non-tillage, the relatively high cost of perennial plant seeds can be spread across multiple growing seasons.
Importantly, the magnitude of cover crop benefits depends on the time course of their use, that is the duration of annual repetitions of tilled cover crops or the continuity of non-tilled cover crops.
How are Specific Benefits with Tilled Cover Crops Achieved?
The degree to which tilled cover crops effect soil condition and resources depends on their composition and state at the time of incorporation. These factors, in turn, are functions of the percentage of constituent species in the cover crop and their developmental stages.
Soil microbes can more readily decompose and produce humus from succulent and tender plant tissues than they can from hardened and ligneous plant tissues. Fortunately, tender and succulent is the condition of winter annual cover crops around the time grapevines emerge from dormancy, which as stated above, is typically around the time of mowing and tillage (Figure 5). Such a timing, however, normally prevents or prematurely terminates seed development, which is why green manure cover crops usually require replanting each autumn.
Figure 5. Shredded annual cover crop residues prior to disking. Source: Progressive Viticulture, LLC ©
Like plants, soil microbes require mineral nutrients and especially nitrogen. Following cover crop incorporation, their swelling populations can quickly deplete the nitrogen supply available in a vineyard soil, leaving little if any for grapevines. Immobilization is the name of this process, in which a mineral nutrient in a soil becomes fixed within a microbial population to the extent that it is deficient for plants.
To avoid nitrogen immobilization, some blends of cover crop plants intended for tillage include a small percentage (e.g., 20% to 40%) of legumes, which as mentioned earlier, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. In this way, cover crop residues are nitrogen-enriched and in a favorable ratio with carbon (i.e., a comparatively low carbon to nitrogen or C:N ratio), which limits the draw on soil nitrogen. Common legumes included in annual cover crop blends include faba beans, field peas, and vetch (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Faba beans (white flowers) and field peas (purple flowers) were part of a winter annual cover crop blend designed to improve the tilth of Clear Lake clay in a Lodi Rules certified vineyard in Martinez, California. Source: Progressive Viticulture, LLC ©
There is another beneficial use of legumes in winter annual cover crops. When legumes are present as the largest percentage of plants (e.g., 70% to 90%), incorporated cover crops markedly increase soil nitrogen similar to some applied nitrogen fertilizers. Such legume-rich cover crops can invigorate the growth and increase the fruit production potential of low-capacity grapevines. They also benefit earthworms, which have a relatively high nitrogen requirement. The nitrogen content of legumes is highest before they set seed and accordingly, they are best incorporated early in the growing season.
In practice, winter annual cover crops comprised entirely of legumes are seldom used as green manures due to their high cost and more importantly, because they can easily supply nitrogen well above the seasonal grapevine requirement, leading to highly vigorous shoot growth, excessive canopy development, and related problems (See lodigrowers.com/nitrogen-part-i-the-pivotal-mineral-nutrient-in-vineyards/.) Small grains and forage grasses are typical companion plants in cover crops designed to satisfy the nitrogen requirement of vineyards (Table 1).
Certain winter annual cover crops can improve soil porosity, which is particularly important for poorly structured soils and soils prone to crusting. Appropriate blends may include plants of the Brassica genus, such as mustards or radishes, that have large tap roots (Figure 7). Deep-rooted grasses and small grains, such as triticale, can also enhance soil porosity as their fibrous root systems spread through soils and exude polysaccharides that bind particles (Table 1). After they die, the roots of mustard and grass blends leave empty casings that serve as conduits for air and water, while their incorporated biomass stimulate microbial induced soil aggregation that further enhances soil porosity and permeability.
Figure 7. A cover crop of white mustard, faba beans, and grasses for improving soil porosity and permeability in a young vineyard on a clay soil. Source: Progressive Viticulture, LLC ©
How are Specific Benefits of Non-Tilled Cover Crops Achieved
To protect sloped soil surfaces from erosion, it is important for a new cover crop to quickly establish or for an established cover crop to promptly regenerate with the moisture provided by autumn rains (Figure 8). In both instances, a cover crop composed of several plants favors rapid ground cover development for a couple of reasons. First, with a mixture of plant life cycles, the annual plants tend to establish most rapidly while perennial plants tend to persist longer into the growing season. Second, some plants within the blend may be better adapted to vineyard specific conditions and flourish more than others. Many grasses are well suited for erosion control, but some legumes can also effectively protect vineyard topsoils (Table 1).
Figure 8. A cover crop blend of Blando brome and annual ryegrass can be an effective combination for limiting water erosion in sloped vineyards. Source: Progressive Viticulture, LLC ©
While nowhere near the quantities provided with incorporated winter annual cover crop tissues, perennial cover crops add organic matter to vineyard soils. The roots of perennial plants exude small amounts of carbon in various forms of (e.g., sugars, mucilage, dead root cells) into the soil around them (the rhizosphere), which sustain low levels of soil microbe activity throughout the growing season. Additionally, mowing perennial cover crops causes some amount of root dieback, which stimulates of microbial decomposition. Perennial legumes similarly contribute low doses of nitrogen to soils through root and nodule sloughing and decomposition.
Perennial turf-type grasses, which are short statured and form dense covers, work well for limiting dust. For California, drought tolerance and summer dormancy are additional valuable traits in a perennial cover crop for dust control.
Transpiration from the dense canopies of perennial clovers promotes early season topsoil drying. This is a desirable cover crop effect for slowly draining clay soils, which can be excessively wet for extended periods. Often, cover crop blends for such soils also include some percentage of perennial forage grasses (Table 1). These grasses have dense and extensive root systems that intensify the draw of blended cover crops on soil moisture.
Perennial forage grasses also have high nitrogen requirements. For this reason, robust cover crops composed entirely of perennial forage grasses can successfully compete for soil nitrogen and subdue the growth of excessively vigorous grapevines (Figure 9).
Figure 9. A robust forage grass cover crop competing with adjacent vines for nitrogen. Source: Progressive Viticulture, LLC ©
What Other Management Actions Contribute to Cover Crop Success?
Successful establishment of both tilled and non-tilled cover crops involves a low-rate application of pr-eplant fertilizer and careful preparation of a seedbed of loose, moist surface soil. The least expensive nitrogen fertilizer is appropriate for grasses, while legumes benefit from fertilizer phosphorus. Use a seeding rate sufficient to ensure a dense cover crop stand. To assure timely growth, some grape growers sprinkler-irrigate newly planted cover crops.
After they emerge, young perennial cover crops, and especially turf-type grasses, benefit from mowing to suppress weeds. Later, avoid mowing perennial grasses until after they set seed. Doing so allows carbohydrate reserves to accumulate in their roots, increasing their tolerance for drought and capacity for regeneration. To foster regrowth, mow perennial cover crops to a height no shorter than 4 inches. Avoid mowing some winter annual plants, like faba bean, field pea, mustards and certain small grains. Removal of their shoot tips arrests their elongation.
Over time, non-tilled cover crops tend to decline and the vineyard floors they cover can become too rough for efficient mechanized vineyard operations. Consequently, most non-till cover crops require periodic replacement or at least, rejuvenation, which may involve fertilization, aeration and/or overseeding with a no-till drill. When replacing, select a cover crop blend with a different species composition to minimize the buildup of soil borne disease and pests.
Conclusions
With so many possibilities, it is easy to overthink cover crops. Begin with the view that any kind of vineyard cover crop is almost always better than no cover crop in the tractor rows of a vineyard. Sometimes planting and managing a simple cover crop composed entirely of oats or annual ryegrass is the most cost-effective option. For vineyards on former pastureland, merely cultivating volunteer vegetation is sometimes satisfactory.
That said, a blended cover crop specifically selected and managed to enhance soil condition and resources or the vineyard environment is often most advantageous. They allow a vineyard manager to advance a specific set of benefits, such as improved soil tilth; increased soil fertility; enhanced soil porosity and permeability to air, water, and elongating roots; limited soil erosion; reduced dust; and regulation of grapevine growth.
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